Roman Republic vs. Roman Empire and Imperial System
Rome experienced significant changes during the
transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire, but the imperial system
was not always as diverse or powerful as it seemed.
March 22, 2020 • By Marianne Vermeulen, BA History and Philosophy
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in The Roman Forum
As one of the longest-lasting and most powerful
civilizations in history, Rome is a fascinating empire to investigate. Any
discussion of Rome is bound to include one particular name: Julius Caesar.
standing at the balance point between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.
Interestingly, when the differences between the Roman Republic and the Roman
Empire are explored, it turns out that the change was careful and complex, and
that the two systems had more in common than they appeared on the surface.
Roman Monarchy
Tarquinius and Lucretia by
Peter Paul Rubens, 1610
Although the Republic and the Empire receive
most of the attention, Rome was already more than two hundred years old when
the Republic arose. Rome's original system was a monarchy, although it was
quite different from the medieval monarchy that forms our image of the term.
Kingship in Rome was not a divine or family right. The sons of the previous
king had a greater chance of inheriting the throne, but the Senate gave the
final accolade to the emperor.
The word Senate comes from the Latin word
"senex," or "old man." The Senate was, by design, a council
of elders. As a deeply hierarchical society, Rome's oldest families formed the
powerful patrician class, and the patriarch of each of those families served on
the Senate, the king's advisory board. When the Romans overthrew the monarchy
in 509 BC, the Senate remained the supreme government body. Two members of the
Senate were elected annually to lead both the Senate and the army as consuls.
Formation Of The Republic
Cicero Condemns Catiline By
Cicero Maccari, 1840–1919
A scene from the Republican Senate: Cicero is
exposing a Catiline plot to overthrow him and his fellow consuls.
In the early years of the Republic, Rome was
more of an oligarchy than a true republic, with power remaining in the hands of
the same old families of Rome. However, in 494 BC, the plebeians, or lower
class, became frustrated with their lack of influence and organized a major
strike, stopping work and production in Rome. As a result, the Senate added
three new assemblies to the government for the making of laws: the Centuriate
Assembly, the Plebeian Council, and the Tribal Assembly. Each of these
primarily covers specific areas of government: military issues, concerns of the
common people, and elections for local offices, respectively.
Consuls and other magistrates were also elected
in these legislative assemblies. Recognizing the ineffectiveness of the
government machinery in times of grave emergency, the Republic also made a
provision for the election of a dictator. This person will hold supreme power
for a specified short period of time to take immediate decisions when needed.
,
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Julius Caesar was the first person to be named
"dictator for life" by the Senate, but fear of his growing power led
to a plot to assassinate him in the Senate.
This was a dictatorial position that allowed the
final transfer from republican to imperial government by naming an individual
"dictator for life." Once the imperial system was solidly
established, Roman emperors had ultimate power, commanding the army,
establishing and vetoing laws, adjudicating cases, and confirming all political
appointments. The Roman government shifted dramatically from a form of
representative democracy to a centralized, single authority. Although the
powers of the legislative bodies and the Senate were reduced, the early years
of the transition were unstable. Under the power of the emperor, some Roman
governments remained surprisingly the same.
Senate's Influence
Statue of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus
Augustus, Caesar's nephew and first emperor of Rome, c. 20 BC, Museo
Capitolino, Rome, Italy
The overthrow of the monarchy in Rome had
created a deep distrust and hatred of kings in the nation, and the position of
the emperor was never really as solid as a casual observer might think. The
Senate planned to assassinate Julius Caesar out of fear of his growing power
and belief that he wanted to crown himself king, and Julius Caesar's nephew
Octavian, later known as Augustus, through cautious diplomatic moves. Having
achieved his royal power, he always maintained it. outward deference to the
Senate, apparently placing its powers in his hands, and carefully avoiding any
direct title indicating kingship.
Tomb Of Augustus In Rome
Throughout the Imperial era, the position of the
emperors was precarious. His powers were granted to him by the Senate at the
beginning of his term and could be taken away if he was not loyal to the army.
The Senate declared Nero a public enemy and sentenced him to death by lynching
during the rebellions that preceded his death. He eventually fled Rome before
ordering his personal secretary to kill him rather than capture him
face-to-face. Imperial Rome experienced frequent turmoil and civil wars as
powerful men competed for power. Senate support could make or break them.
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Role Of The Army
Statue of Emperor Domitian in Vaison-la-Romaine,
France Domitian was assassinated in a conspiracy hatched by a group of
high-ranking senators.
Additionally, the Roman army and Praetorian
Guard had major political power at their sword's edge. Like the Senate, their
support can elevate people to imperial power, and their dissent usually leads
to their death. AD 69 is known as the year of the "Four Emperors":
Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. After Nero's death, four provincial
governors, and hence military commanders, became emperors in short succession.
The Praetorian Guard killed Galba, and the Senate declared Otho emperor. However,
Otho suffered a military defeat when Vitellius brought some of the best
veterans of the Roman army to the field. After the defeat, Otho committed
suicide, and the Senate recognized Vitellius as emperor. Ultimately, the armies
under Vespasian's command declared him emperor, and Vitellius's supporters
gradually abandoned him. Vespasian's forces captured Rome and killed Vitellius,
and the Senate then declared Vespasian emperor.
Altar Of The Temple Of Vespasian In Pompeii, Italy
Fortunately for Rome, the chaotic civil wars
ended, and the Vespasian Empire established the Flavian Dynasty, which
maintained stable power for the next twenty-seven years. Yet the Flavian
dynasty also ended in blood when several senators plotted to assassinate
Domitian and place a stable, older senator, Nerva, on the throne. He was
largely a placeholder to avoid the wars of 69 AD, and his chosen successor,
Trajan, had the strong loyalty of the army, the Senate, and the people.
Praetorian Influence
Coin Depicting Didius
Julianus (193 AD)
The Praetorian Guard was less enthusiastic but
did not challenge that particular line of emperors. However, as the emperor's
personal bodyguard and unit allowed to carry weapons in Rome, they posed a
unique threat to the emperor and the Senate and thus could even decide the fate
of Rome. In fact, 193
In A.D., the Praetorian Guard auctioned off the
position of emperor, essentially selling off the empire. A wealthy senator
named Didius Julianus purchased the position for 6,250 drachmas per soldier.
However, Didius' performance was also not good. After a reign of only 66 days,
the Senate sentenced him to death, and a Praetorian executed him in his own
palace.
Roman Republic Vs. Roman Empire
Digital Reconstruction Of A
Roman Bathhouse From Cassinomagus (Modern Chesnon, France)
While the imperial system remained stable during
the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus
Aurelius, and other emperors like them, the distinction between the Republic
and the Empire was a massive political change. Yet there remained an
undercurrent of the republican system, which made the position of the emperor
uncertain. Rome never completely rejected its Republican roots. Furthermore,
government was not the only area to see change in the shift from republic to
empire. Roman religion incorporated imperial cults into its worship, as the
Senate deified most dead emperors.
Roman Gladiators Are Currently Depicted On A Mosaic In The
Galleria Borghese In Rome.
Roman culture also saw a change from republic to
empire. Centralized power and the rapid expansion of Roman territory and
foreign trade led to increased wealth in Rome. The early Romans were quite
proud of their reputation as practical, hard-working, and self-sacrificing
individuals. Although this ideal persisted in the collective psyche, the influx
of wealth and goods led to the development of much more luxurious lifestyles,
especially in the resort towns surrounding the city of Rome and the Italian
countryside. High society in Rome involved lavish bathing and dining and public
entertainment on a large scale, and pageantry became ever more ostentatious.
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Mosaic From A Gymnasium In Ostia Antica, The Port City Of Rome
This prosperity allowed increased production in
literature, architecture, and the arts. Both private homes and public buildings
were generously decorated with beautiful artwork, including statues, frescoes,
and intricate mosaics. Wealthy Romans enjoyed abundant comforts and pleasures,
yet that prosperity would also contribute to Rome's eventual fall. The empire
sent more and more of its stable value in gold and silver to foreign markets in
exchange for expendable luxury goods and earned public wealth primarily from
the taxation of those foreign imports.
When foreign economies collapsed, Rome found
itself in dire financial straits. With increasing unrest, instability of the
government system, and violent barbarian raids, the Western Empire gradually
disintegrated. The path of Ancient Rome in cultural, economic, and political
progress is one that many modern nations are now busy following, and as such,
it deserves close attention and analysis so that they can avoid making the same
mistakes.